Hammurabi’s Code: Revenge or Justice

Andrew Zobel Christian Woodfin Tim Koehler Justice and revenge, while often lumped together, have very distinct differences. Revenge, in its most basic meaning, is â€Å"exact punishment or expiation for a wrong on behalf of, especially in a resentful or vindictive spirit. † Justice, on the other hand, has more of a heroic feel to it. Justice is the right thing, while revenge is frowned upon in society. Justice is necessary, revenge is not.Every successful civilization in history has had a strong system of laws and punishments, and Hammurabi’s Sumerians were no exception. Hammurabi’s code evokes a strong sense of justice rather than revenge. While his laws were very strict in nature, they were simply disciplinary measures needed to keep the common man in line. The â€Å"eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth† method of discipline, while being quite primitive in compassion for those breaking the law, is still justice at its inner most core.The first three laws i n Hammurabi’s code have to do with protecting the accused. Nowhere in these decrees is revenge a factor; this is all about preserving integrity for the individual. Rules twenty-two to twenty-five have to do with theft and robbery. It is not simply an act of revenge to pursue those in violation of the law and punish them, it is to balance out both sides of the equation. If someone feels the need to steal, then he or she shall face the consequences put forth. Hammurabi was quite strict on adultery.If someone was found having an affair, they were either run out of town, paid a hefty fine, or were put to death. Having such severe punishments for crime really whips the subjects into shape. Had there been less of a penalty, the common man would take advantage of these laws because of no fear of the consequences. If revenge was the core of a legal system, then society could not propel itself forward; it would be too worried about getting even, thus causing it to self-destruct. Witho ut law and order, civilization and a prosperous community cannot exist.

Pressure Management on a Supercritical Airfoil

Pressure Management on a supercritical aerofoil in transonic flow Abstract-At transonic speeds an aerofoil will have flow accelerate onwards from the leading edge to sonic speeds and produce a shockwave over the surface of its body. One factor that determines the shockwave location is the flow speed. However, the shape of an aerofoil also has an influence. The experiment conducted compared Mach flow over a supercritical aerofoil (flattened upper surface) and a naca0012 aerofoil (symmetrical).Despite discrepancies, the experiment confirmed the aerodynamic performance of a supercritical aerofoil being superior to a conventional aerofoil. A comparison of the graphical distributions demonstrates the more even pressure distribution on a supercritical aerofoil and a longer delay in shockwave formation. All of which, reflects the theory. Table of Contents Introduction3 Apparatus3 Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section3 Mercury Manometer4 Procedure4 Theory and Equations5 Results6 Discussion10 Theory of Transonic Flight10 Relating the Theory to the Experiment11Effectiveness of Supercritical aerofoils†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 11 Limitations and Improvements12 Appendix13 References14 Introduction For any object travelling through a fluid such as air, a pressure distribution over all of its surface exists which helps generate the necessary lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force which is perpendicular to the direction of the aerofoil. Transonic speeds result in the formation of shockwaves over the top surface of the aerofoil. This is due to accelerated flow over the surface region. We say this region is approximately between 0. 8-0. . Since the flow must accelerate and then will lose velocity following the shockwave the aerofoil will have a subsonic and sonic region. For the majority of commercial airlines this is not a desired region to cruise at given the instantaneous pressure distribution which passengers would otherwise experience. Particularly, the formation of shock induced boundary layer separation. Supercritical aerofoils are more efficient designed for higher Mach speeds and drag reduction. They are distinct from conventional aerofoils by their flattened upper surface and asymmetrical design.The main advantage of this type of aerofoil is the development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. In order to truly understand the effectiveness of a supercritical aerofoil an experiment gathering supercritical aerofoil performance and raw data of a naca0012 aerofoil will be extensively analysed and compared. Following the calculation and procedureit will be assessed whether a supercritical aerofoil is more effective. ApparatusA wind tunnel with a transonic test section was used in this experiment to study transonic flow around an aerofoil. The test section consists of liners which, after the initial contraction, are nominally parallel apart from a slight divergence to compensate for growth of the boundary layers on the wall. In order to reduce interference and blockage at transonic speeds, the top and bottom liners are ventilated by longitudinal slots backed by plenum chambers. The working section has a height and width of 178mm and 89mm respectively. The stagnation pressure, p0? in the tunnel is close to atmospheric pressure, and therefore it can be taken to be equal to the settling-chamber pressure as the errors are only small. To minimise the disturbance due to the model itself, the reference stagnation pressure, p? , is taken from a pressure tapping in the floor of the working-section, well upstream of the model. The nominal ‘free-stream’ Mach number, M? , in the tunnel can be calculated from the ratio p? /p0?. The Mach number in the tunnel can be controlled by varying the pressure of the injected air, pj. The maximum Mach number that the tunnel can achieve is about 0. 8 Mercury Manometer A multi-tube manometer with mercury was used to measure the pressure at stagnation, the aerofoil tappings and atmosphere. The manometer is equipped with a locking mechanism which allows the mercury levels to be ‘frozen’ so that readings can be taken once the flow has been stopped. Also, the angle of the manometer can be adjusted. For this experiment, it was set to 45 degrees (Motellebi, F. ,2012). Procedure Before conducting the experiment, the barometric pressure, Pat, was recorded, in inches of mercury and the atmospheric temperature, in degrees Celsius, was also recorded.For a range of  values of Pj from 10 – 110 lb/in2, in intervals of 20lb/in2, Pj was then recorded along with the manometer readings corresponding to stagnation pressure (I0? ), the reference static pressure (I? ), airfoil pressure tappings (In, n=1 to 8 and 3a ) and the atmospheric pressure (Iat), all in inches of mercury (Motellebi, F. ,2012). Results- Raw data in appendix x/c Figure 1b Cp against x/c at M= 0. 85 Figure 1a -Cp against x/c at M=0. 85 The experimental data was converted to absolute pressure values using Equation x ( units are inches of mercury).For a given value of the pressure injector (Pinjector) we can find the value of the Mach number using Equation y. Also Equation Z calculates Cp( or pressure coefficents) which reflect the measurements of the surface of the aerofoil. These results are displayed in figure x. This was done for both the supercritical aerofoil and the NACCA 0012 aerofoil. What follows is a comparison and analysis of the data. ( Figure 2b Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 8 Figure 2a -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 81 x/c x/c Figure 3b- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 72 Figure 3a –Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 3 Figure 4b –Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 61 Figure 4a –Cp against x/ c at Mach speed 0. 61 Figure 5a- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 45 Figure 5b- -Cp against x/c at Mach speed 0. 44 Note that for both supercritical and naca0012 aerofoils the supercritical cases ( where M is equal to 0. 77, 0. 83 and 0. 840) the approximate value of x/c % where the shock occurs over the aerofoil is shown in red line. For the point below where Cp and the Cpcritical and hence the drop in Cp is greatest gives the location of where the shockwave occurs on the surface of the aerofoil. Cp and Cp* vs M? naca0012 aerofoil) Cp and Cp* vs M? (supercritical aerofoil) It is worth noting that for both the supercritical and Naca0012 aerofoil the results are somewhat similar. That is the critical Mach numbers for both are around 0. 72. Therefore the Minimum Mach number for a local shockwaves on both the supercritical and conventional aerofoil can be assumed to be the same. It is worth noting that Mach number 0. 41 for the supercritical aerofoil does not produce a shockwave, where as the Naca0012 aerofoil does. Mach number| Supercritical Aerofoil Approx position of shock| naca0012 Approx position of shock| 0. 5| -| -| 0. 61| -| -| 0. 72-0. 73| -| 0. 25x/c%| 0. 85-0. 86| 0. 70x/c%| 0. 40x/c%| Basic transonic theory An aerofoil or any object for that matter travelling through a medium (air) at low Mach numbers ( typically between 0. 30-0. 40) has flow is subsonic and can be considered incompressible. This means that any change in pressure or density is significant. The speed of sound (a) is dependent on the altitude of the aerofoil/object and the Mach number M is the ratio of velocity: M=va , a=? RT ?is a specific heat ratio, T is thel absolute temperature and R is the gas constant.The combination of these two equations above leads to: M=v? RT Sound is essentially a series of consecutive weak pressure waves emitted from a given source. These waves travel at the local speed of sound. If we assume the aerofoil is travelling towards the source, the source can noti ce the disturbances beforehand giving enough time for flow to adjust around the object. When the source begins to approach near the speed of sound, pressure waves move closer together in front of the object, therefore inadequate information from the source/disturbance is propagated upstream and the flow will not be able to react in time.The pressure waves merge together to produce a shockwave in front of the object. The flow encountering the shockwave will experience changes in temperature, static pressure and gas density as well as a lower Mach number. The transonic region is special because although flight speed is below sonic speed as the information is propagated upstream on the surface of the aerofoil the flow accelerated to the speed of sound. Thus forming a shockwave over the aerofoil. The position of this shockwave depends on the initial entry speed to the aerofoil.Therefore what we have in the transonic region is an aerofoil which has sonic speeds early upstream and subsoni c speed towards the end of the aerofoil or downstream. This means it is complicated to accurately analyse transonic flow over an aerofoil as a different set of equations must be used on the leading edge, upper surface and trailing edge. The critical upstream Mach number is the minimum value of a given Mach number for which a shockwave will be produced on the surface of an aerofoil. In other words, supersonic flow.Below this threshold a shockwave will not appear. Drag or the aerodynamic force in the transonic region again depends on the speed of the object travelling. At subsonic speeds the main component of drag are Skin friction, pressure drag and lift induced drag. At sonic speeds (approaching or exceeding) there is the addition of wave drag. The drag increases dramatically, and as a result a higher thrust is needed to sustain acceleration. Also, at this point the shockwave will interact with the boundary layer, thus causing it to separate upstream of the shock.Figure 6Demonstrati on of transonic flight-(Scott, J. , 2000) The aerofoils The two aerofoils Naca0012 and Supercritical aerofoil are different in design and purpose. The Naca0012 is a basic symmetrical aerofoil used primarily for rudder and elevator movements. Aerodynamic performance is not taken into consideration and is thus reflected by the simple aerodynamic design. It is worth noting that there are better aerofoils. The Supercritical aerofoil is a performance aerofoil designed for higher Mach speeds and drag reduction.They are distinct from conventional aerofoils by their flattened upper surface and asymmetrical design. The main advantage of this type of aerofoil is the development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. Relating the Theory to the Experiment The critical Mach number for both the supercritical aerofoil and NACA0012 aerofoil was found to be in the region of 0,72. There is a difference to the neares t 10th but for all intents and purposes we can assume they are the same.This indicates that the minimum Mach number for a shockwave to be produced on the surface of the aerofoils is equal and not influenced via the shape. The pressure distributions of the supercritical aerofoil ( especially at Higher Mach) in comparison to the Naca0012 are more evenly distributed. The experiment confirms the theory that the supercritical aerofoil in comparison ro a conventional aerofoil generates more lift due to an even distribution of pressure over the upper surface. (http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Supercritical_airfoil) Effectiveness of Supercritical aerofoils.At a Mach number of 0. 45 both aerofoils do not display a shockwave. This is evident from the fact the Cp and Cp* graphs do not intersect at all. We already know this because the critical Mach number is 0. 72 for both. This indicates that either a shockwave was not produced (unlikely), or that the shockwave was produced beyond the trailing edge This means we cannot assess the effectiveness of the supercritical aerofoil at Mach speeds 0,45 and 0. 61. The supercritical Mach numbers show varying results. When the experiment took place at Mach ) 0. 72-0. 3 ( the critical Mach number) the supercritical aerofoil did not produce a shockwave ( Cp and Cp* do not intersect) whereas the naca0012 aerofoil did. The lack of a shockwave formation indicates either the critical Mach number for the supercritical aerofoil is higher then the conventional aerofoil experimental accuracy is lacking. At the supercritical mach numbers ( 0. 81-0. 86) in both the naca0012 aerofoil and the supercritical aerofoil Cp and Cp* intersect. The large drop in pressure coefficient is evidence of the formation of a shockwave.However, the pressure drop in the supercritical aerofoil is occurring at a pressure tapping further downstream. This confirms the theory that a shockwave is produced further downstream in a supercritical aerofoil This seems to confirm the theory that a supercritical aerofoils design does allow for development of shockwaves further away then traditional aerofoils and thus greater reduction in the shock induced boundary layer separation. In regards to the amount of drag (aerodynamic force) acting on the aerofoils it is worth noting that the pressure distribution at 0. 5 Mach for the supercritical aerofoil is more evenly distributed and ‘flatter’ then the naca0012 aerofoil. There is no indication of a large instantaneous increase in drag taking over. This would therefore confirm the theory that a supercritical aerofoil is effective in greatly reducing the shock induced boundary layer separation. Notes for limitations The experiment is a success since results obtained confirm the capabilities of supercritical aerofoils and their advantages over conventional aerofoils. However, there are a few discrepancies which regarding experimental error and the different aerofoils.First of all the mach numbers teste d at 0. 72 and 0. 73 created an inaccurate experiment. Normally, this would not be a problem. However, since the critical mach numbers for both aerofoil’s were in the vicinity of 0. 72 it was expected this was the minimum threshold for a shockwave to be produced over the aerofoil. A shockwave was not produced for the supercritical aerofoil despite the critical mach number value. Therefore, we can conclude that at this speed there are too many inaccuracies to understand what is really going on.We also did not really see a difference in performance at subsonic flow. Granted, the supercritical aerofoil was primarily designed for supercritical mach speed. No useful information was obtained from here. The fact the pressure tappings have different coordinates means that each aerofoil is showing the pressure distribution at a different set of coordinates. This of course, is not as accurate if the aerofoils had the same pressure tappings. For instance, the naca0012 has a pressure tap ping at 6. 5% of the aerofoil section and the last ends 75% the rest is unaccounted for.Since the supercritical aerofoil has different pressure tappings it means both aerofoils have different areas which are unaccounted for. This means it is not certain whether or not the graphs are a reliable source of information, yet alone to compare. A digital meter should also be connected that displays the pressure in the two tappings so the aerofoil can be appropriately adjusted to bring it to zero incidence. This digital meter can also be used to display the value of the mercury levels for other pressure tappings, reducing any human errors.In order to increase the accuracy of the pressure distribution over the aerofoil surface, more pressure tappings can be made on the aerofoil. These will improve the pressure coefficient graphs by allowing more points to be plotted, in turn, yielding better information for the position of the shockwave in the supercritical cases and also the critical Mach n umber for a shock to occur. References 1) http://www. southampton. ac. uk/~jps7/Aircraft%20Design%20Resources/aerodynamics/supercritical%20aerofoils. pdf 2) http://www. nasa. gov/centers/dryden/pdf/89232main_TF-2004-13-DFRC. pdf 3)

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To what extent is children's well-being a priority in modern Western Essay

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Chemistry chemistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Plastic Surgery and Women's Beauty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

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Strategic Management - Essay Example as the course of action that consists of specifications of the resources needed to attain a specific advantage is very essential for a business development (Hanna and Middleton, 2008:18). This paper will seek to describe strategic management by critically analyzing strategic and non-strategic decisions and the difference between business level, functional, and corporate level strategy with reference to the Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts International. It will also evaluate the role of risk and uncertainty in strategic decision-making, critically assess the need for change, and develop strategies for managing change. Strong decisions making procedures are truly significant in every organization. Specific methods of making decisions play a major role in realizing an organization’s executive goals. Ways in which managers make decisions influence the kind of results the organization is likely to obtain and resources to be committed (Williams, Hall, and Champion, 2011:60). Benefits such as higher amounts of profits and rapid implementation of decisions make part of the strategic management of an organization (Sutherland, 2008:80) Strategic decision-making ensures that employees with key discipline in decision-making and those who have experience take part in the process making choices for the organizational well-being (Ford, Sturman, and Heaton, 2012:57). Strategic decisions making takes note that, the decisions made by an organization are implemented rapidly. Rapid implementation of the set objectives facilitates rapid organizational growth as employees and managers act accordingly and with speed on goals laid upon by the management (Sturman, Corgel, and Verma, 2011:45). Strategically, decision-making process should put into consideration a number of disciplines, which enable faster discussions, involvement, and response. Management with strategy encompasses skills, expertise, and experience (Barrow, Brown, and Clarke, 2003:63). As such, organizations that

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

Writer's choice - Essay Example The short cuff gloves exposed the wrist to potential injury prompting players to start attaching specially molded plastic to the front part of their elbow pads to protect the lower part of their forearm (National Hockey League 9). Ideally, the evolution depicts the significance of plastic material in making hockey skates where plastic pads and fiberglass replaced leather shoulder and elbow pads to enhance protection. With a specific focus on the impact of plastics material on hockey sticks, pucks, skates, and safety, we can derive how plastics revolutionized ice hockey. Indeed, plastic has revolutionized traditional hockey sticks that were initially wooden via nanotechnologies that enhance the durability and speed of handling hockey sticks (Canadian Plastics Industry Association 1). Moreover, manufacturers use plastic material to make hockey pucks through modern technologies like vulcanization. Most specifically, plastic materials advanced hockey skates that initially had leather with metal blades (Canadian Plastics Industry Association 1). Unlike old skates, the modern skates have a protective plastic cowling made of a major polymer, high-end polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Canadian Plastics Industry Association 1 ). Indeed, the PVC is dominant in covering the lower half of the hockey boot (Canadian Plastics Industry Association 1). Modern manufacturers of hockey skates rely on PVC polymer subject to its good insulation properties. Indeed, PVC can only start decomposing when the temperature exceeds 140 Â °C since it has a melting point of about 160 Â °C. Moreover, the polymer has a small linear expansion coefficient and good flame retardancy that enhances the sliding action of the skate blade and skating speed. This relates to its high hardness and good mechanical properties. Indeed, with a thermal coefficient of expansion of 80 x 10-6 and density of 1.38 g/cm3, PVC promotes the production of hockey skates that generate less

On Berkeley’s Concept of God and Heinous Sins Essay Example for Free

On Berkeley’s Concept of God and Heinous Sins Essay It is a misconstrual in positing that George Berkeley’s axiom that God being the author of ideas is responsible for all heinous crimes. And worst, claiming that such postulate of Berkeley is the loophole in his argument and philosophical treatise is reading his philosophic stance superficially. Relying on a version of the argument from design, Berkeley concluded that our ‘ideas’ are produced in our minds by the will of God acting directly. So God, whom we may safely assume to act (in Berkeleys estimation) in full knowledge of what he is doing, must himself have all the ideas which he generates in human minds, as well as those which he would generate, if the right human acts of will occurred to make them appropriate. And for Berkeley, this would amount to saying that God perceives the whole of physical reality, since physical reality simply is a certain infinitely complex constellation of ideas, and having them before ones consciousness is perceiving it. That would be, in itself, a welcome conclusion, when we perceive the physical world, what we do is just the same as what God does when he perceives it; all that happens in either case is that a mind has certain perceptions, nothing more, and so the human mind can be just as sure of what it perceives as is the divine mind of what it perceives. But it does not necessarily follow that he is the author of evil because as Berkeley defined sin, it is the manifestation of the spirit’s will, meaning it is not something that is innate to the motion of its body or God’s design (Berkeley 1988). Thus when ethical issues or moral conflict arises, it is not necessary to blame for the transpiration of events. For example, the espousal of capital punishment is not authored by God, but it was the product of human will and faculty. The problem is, when humanity cannot explain things, they tend to account it to God. Unfortunately, they forget that there is no necessary connection between cause and effect, and they failed to realize that heinous sins such as adultery, murder and sacrilege are not will of God but of ours.

Why did the struggle to end apartheid in South Africa take so long?

Why did the struggle to end apartheid in South Africa take so long? Why did the struggle to end apartheid in South Africa take so long? The struggle to end apartheid in South Africa appears, at the dawn of the twenty first century, to be an aberration of social and world history. Viewed within the context of the pervasive civil rights movement in North America and the abolition of slavery (first in Britain at the beginning of the nineteenth century and followed by America after the Civil War in 1865), apartheid seems like a medieval notion that was imprinted upon modern history; an anachronistic nightmare imposed on civilised society. In a world that had banished National Socialism and seen the back of Stalin, the Immorality Amendment Act (1961) remained a legal statute in South Africa until 1985, making sexual relations between whites and non‑whites an unlawful act under apartheid. Yet the very singularity of apartheid remained a key reason for its longevity: for as long as South Africa could be isolated and swept under the international diplomatic rug the rest of the free world could comfort itself in its li beral attitude to race relations while leaving the citizens of South Africa to play the role of international pariahs. However, as Barber ascertains, â€Å"although western governments continued to criticise apartheid, their criticism was often drowned out by accusations of their hypocrisy.† For the purposes of this study, analysis will take a chronological form, tracking the genesis of apartheid as a political creed to understand how it became a part of the South African way of life. In this way it will be shown how apartheid took so long to be rooted out of the national culture.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The greatest mistake for historians today is to view South Africa from a solely British colonial perspective. It is important to understand that the country had a long and rich social history before the arrival of the British. It was a legacy tainted with taut race relations between the indigenous African tribes and the first settlers, the Boers. Indeed, before the arguments pertaining to apartheid were ever voiced, the British and Boers fought a long war of attrition (1899‑1902) to determine which nation should govern the land that was rich in minerals and therefore important in an economic and strategic sense. Conflict is thus at the heart of the history of South Africa. Like Northern Ireland one should not dismiss the effects of repetitive differences of opinion whereby war and aggravation can become deep rooted within the culture.   Ã‚   The eventual British victory in the Boer War sewed the seeds of the resentment that would ultimately harvest apartheid (apartness). Boers, or Afrikaners as they were known within their own ranks, felt like aliens in their home land, made to speak a foreign language and pay allegiance to a detested foreign power. During the first three decades of the twentieth century Afrikaners felt more alienated than ever with a large wage and lifestyle discrepancy between the English‑speaking South Africans and the Afrikaners. By the end of the Second World War, the Afrikaners were an ethnic group on the verge of revolting. Therefore, when the alliance between the National Party and the Afrikaner Party bore fruit in the way of a unified South African national election victory in May 1948 the result was a reversal back to political ideals that were envisaged in the pre‑British days of the nineteenth century – apartheid being one of several popular ultra‑conservative slog ans used during the preceding electoral campaign. The day after the victory, party leader, Malan declared: â€Å"Today South Africa belongs to us once more. South Africa is our own for the first time since Union, and may God grant that it will always remain our own.† With such a resentful and dislocated background, apartheid was introduced as a means to perpetuate white rule. As a social and political philosophy, it was a backlash against modernity – specifically against the civil rights movement. Traditionally, prejudice thrives on routine and wilts in the face of modernity and the speed with which the North American people vented their disgust at segregation in the Deep South shocked the white leaders of South Africa, not only for the ferocity of the rage against the state but also for the composition of the dissenters, many white, middle‑class and well‑educated. Yet there were distinct and fundamental differences between the South African national experience and that of the USA. Although both America and South Africa were initially colonial countries, the influx of immigrants to the USA was markedly different to the migration of people to South Africa. As New York took over from London as the financial capital of the West after 1918, South Africa remained a predominantly agricultural country. The relevance of this in terms of the perpetuation of apartheid is that while one nation became a melting pot of differing ideologies, religions, races and creeds, the other became entrenched in a formulaic white‑black divide with a history of Afrikaner and British land‑holders dictating policy to a black populace. Apartheid should be viewed as part of a broader policy of deconstruction taking place in post‑war South Africa, all facets tied to the dual desire to keep power from black people as well as moving away from the disapproving gaze of the West. The removal of both the British National Anthem and the Union Jack as cultural symbol (1957), the replacement of UK currency (1961) as well as the referendum (1960) and subsequent formulation of the republic (1961) highlighted the uniquely South African experience, which was designed as a means to create white unity and loyalty to South Africa alone. In this sense, apartheid was strongly tied to Afrikaner nationalism, making it a movement beyond the comprehension and control of the former British colonial masters. â€Å"While there was very little difference between Afrikaners and English‑speakers in their support for white supremacy, residential segregation and migrant labour, English opinion‑formers constantly tried to distance themselves as much as possible from the racial politics of Afrikaner parties. They found the crude expression of racism distasteful and resented being shut out from power.† Political apartheid in South Africa was so durable because it was built upon a well‑founded ideological structure that curbed black influence in all corners of society. Apartheid can be viewed as a pyramid. The first building block was the political obstacles put in the way of black participation in administrative affairs leaving politics to be a whites’ only domain. The National Party next used enforced separation of existing physical communities to perpetuate their rule, followed by the segregation of education and the labour market (black workers were not officially permitted to form trade unions). Not only did the National Party separate black and white communities but they also restricted movement within the country in the same way that Jews were not permitted to travel within Nazi Germany. The formation of the Bantustans (black ‘homelands’) meant that blacks were put out of sight of the white minority rulers giving rise to two completely separate soci o‑economic groups within one sovereign nation. The sum of these measures was to make a law of a loose body of segregation and prejudice methods of divide and rule that were already in place before 1945, making apartheid the most extreme version of institutionalised racism anywhere the industrialised world. â€Å"Segregation doctrine was supplanted by the more dangerous notion ‘separate development.’ This involved the idea that Africans and others should reside, and enjoy citizenship rights, in distinct ethnic homelands. Whereas White supremacy and segregation had involved an explicit racial hierarchy in legislative and political practice, the NP from 1961 was committed to formal equality between groups understood in ethnic terms.† It is a key point to make in terms of comprehending the durability of apartheid. While segregation alone would have ensured white supremacy for a generation, the complete stagnation of educational or vocational opportunity for blacks meant that they were, over successive generations, unable to wrest power from Afrikaner hands. Moreover, the notion of two ideals of citizenship in one country gave the blacks the illusion of self ­ rule even though, in reality, their human rights were worth next to nothing under apartheid.  Ã‚   Of all the installations of prejudice utilised by the National Party to ensure the penetration of apartheid, the restriction of physical movement proved to be the greatest obstacle to long term change. Throughout history, all of the momentous instigators of social change heralded from industrial cities where like‑minded individuals could disseminate information to one another and could meet in secret underground. Paris, Boston and St.  Petersburg are all examples of the role of the modern city as conduit through which progressive ideas might puncture throughout society so as to induce cultural change. In 1948 there were two million blacks located in South African cities compared to six million in the countryside and the great majority of these lived in slums. With the arrival of the Bantustans, the blacks were further constrained in terms of being able to form a coherent opposition to apartheid along the lines of the Black Panther Party in the USA or the NICRA in Northern Ir eland. Clearly, the lack of intellectual, philosophical and political discourse within South African urban centres meant that apartheid was more difficult to dislodge from within than was the case in, for example, French Algeria, South Africa’s closest continental equivalent.    If the period 1945‑1961 is seen as the foundation of apartheid in South Africa, then the years 1961‑1980 should be viewed as the era of ‘high apartheid’, where the NP regime fought against modernity and international opinion to maintain a political system that was at odds with the rest of western civilisation. Acts of state‑sponsored atrocity such as the Soweto Massacre (1976) shocked the world and divided international opinion. In 1966, at the heyday of apartheid during the final year of Verwoerd’s term in office, 1.5 million blacks were kept in reserve who would otherwise have become urbanised and, potentially, radicalised. Yet it should be understood that the international community was compliant in the continuation of apartheid during this time. It has been shown that the blacks within South Africa were powerless to form opposition to apartheid from within. Hope therefore rested with the outside world.    â€Å"Enforcing apartheid required not only a range of oppressive methods domestically: intimidation, abandonment of the rule of law, torture, outright terror including assassination – all these were commonplace in South Africa. But the tentacles of the police state also spread abroad, often assisted by Western intelligence services in ways which infected and compromised the democratic politics of these countries. From the late 1960’s onwards, South African agents were responsible for a series of attacks on anti‑apartheid organisations across the world.† Thus, as the horrors of the Holocaust faded into history and the world became united by satellite communication, the National Party treatment of blacks could only have been perpetuated via external assistance. Although sanctions were imposed and diplomats constantly sent to Pretoria, the police state apparatus was aided by international impotence in the face of extreme racial oppression. Indeed, the nerve centre of apartheid during the era of high apartheid was the South African equivalent of the Gestapo – the Afrikaner Broederband, established by three Afrikaner nationals in 1918. â€Å"The Afrikaner Broederband made the nature of the apartheid administration unique. Most of the country’s leading government members, generals, judges and senior police officers, along with many Church and education officials, operated on the deeply secret level of the AB.† Economic and cultural ties also ensured that key European countries such as Britain and West Germany continued to trade with South Africa, and the illegal arms trade made certain that the AB and hit‑squads of apartheid were always supplied with the tools to guarantee black suppression. In addition, the spectre of the Cold War loomed large over the issue of apartheid. Not only did the USSR divert attention away from the atrocities taking place in South Africa, but the nation was seen, in much the same way as Vietnam, as a key battleground in the spreading of communist theory across the post‑war globe, exacerbated by the rich economic opportunities prevalent in the country. Perversely, the Soviet states supported the liberal racial ideologies of the suppressed black South Africans, fuelled by the extreme anti‑communist stance of all of the NP leaders, who each played a major role in apartheid. â€Å"Apartheid’s phases have been stamped by Afrikanerdom’s great men: Malan preached Afrikaner unity, Strydom the republican ideal; Vorster’s rule was marked by pragmatism and tough security laws; and PW Botha’s era was distinguished by the total onslaught and militarism tinged with reformism.† That the compliance of the international community was a major factor in the continuation of apartheid can be seen through the means via which it was eventually dismantled. The beginning of the end of apartheid was the revised 1984 national constitution, which aimed to highlight existing divides within the nation to split the burgeoning black political parties. The new constitution differentiated between Indians, ‘coloureds’ and whites leaving blacks as the sole focus of racism in South Africa; however, in attempting to woo other ethnic groups the National Party gave explicit encouragement to, among others, the UDF (United Democratic Front). â€Å"The view from below was of a galling piece of political expediency. The new constitution amounted to an admission that apartheid was a failure.† De Tocqueville in the nineteenth century noted that people may endure grievance and abuse only for as long as they feel as if they are powerless to do anything about it. This had certainly been the case in the history of South Africa until the second half of the 1980’s. Yet with the dilution of the ethnic pool over a period of four decades, and the subtle shift in symbolic power from the NP to the ANC, apartheid was ultimately doomed to failure. Conclusion The widespread feeling of isolation was at the root of the perpetuation of apartheid in South Africa. Isolation was first experienced by the Boers and Afrikaners who then transmitted this sense of alienation to the blacks under the guise of apartheid. Isolation was likewise the tactic employed by the international community after the National Party victory in 1948, which further assisted the policy of apartheid. History reports that expulsion from international groups and treaties benefits no‑one but the dictators in charge of the nation that has so offended the free world. The recent examples of Iraq and Zimbabwe highlight the futility of isolation as an international relations panacea to the social ills of the modern world. It is therefore prudent to see apartheid in South Africa as the vision of Afrikaner racists fuelled by international compliance via ineptitude. Apartheid’s longevity was also aided by the presence of communism and the enticing economic climate of South Africa, which ensured that a tougher stance was not taken against the NP. In this way the struggle to end apartheid took the best part of half a century; the greatest surprise was that by 1990 it ended so quickly without recourse to civil war or mass bloodshed. BIBLIOGRAPHY BARBER, James. Mandela’s World: the International Dimension of South Africa’s Political Revolution, 1990‑1999. Oxford, James Currey, 2004. BELL, Terry. Unfinished Business: South Africa, Apartheid and Truth. London, Verso, 2003. BUTLER, Anthony. Contemporary South Africa. London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. GILIOMEE, Herman. The Afrikaners: Biography of a People. London, Hurst Co, 2003. HAIN, Peter. Sing the Beloved Country: the Struggle for the New South Africa. London, Pluto, 1996. MAMDANI, Mahmood. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996. MOORCRAFT, Paul. African Nemesis: War and Revolution in Southern Africa, 1945‑2010. London, Brassey’s UK, 1994. POSEL, Deborah. The Making of Apartheid. Oxford, Clarendon, 1991. ROBERTSON, Janet. Liberalism in South Africa. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1971. SPARKS, Allister. The Mind of South Africa: the Story of the Rise and Fall of Apartheid. London, Heinemann, 1990

Health Promotion Strategies for Obesity

Health Promotion Strategies for Obesity Introduction Australian Health Ministers have identified obesity as an area of National Health Priority Area as evidenced and supported by Durand 2007 â€Å"reversing the obesity epidemic is an urgent priority†. Through this essay we will discuss the determinants of health, what is obesity and possible strategies for primary, secondary, and tertiary health promotion for obesity. Most of the primary strategies used are targeted towards children as most of the programs used to promote healthy eating and exercise, according to the literature, reside predominantly in schools while secondary and tertiary promotion are targeted at adults and families. The key feature of the primary strategies of health promotion to deter behaviors and lifestyle choices that leads to obesity is education, which is why the school aged population is targeted. The discussion of the primary strategies in health promotion will generally focus on school run programs and activities. From here we will explore the options of screening and testing under the secondary health promotion for obesity which will be aimed at children, adults and families before delving into management of obesity, patient education and other tertiary health promotions available although in this instance most will mostly be targeted towards the adult population. Through the discussion of this health promotion, will we analysis and determine possible limitations and implications for nursing practice. We will commence with the definition of the determinants of health which in this case refers to the causes of obesity in our community and briefly explore possible causes and reasons for obesity. Determinants of health Buttriss (2008) theories that the current obesity trend threatens public health and the research (Galani, Al, Schneider, Rutten, 2007)supports that not only does obesity become a precursor to morbidity and mortality but an economic drain on government funds the healthcare system in turn cause implication for nurses to accommodate a bariatric patient who will become physically difficult to manually handle and becomes a drain on the nurses resources for a condition that could have been prevented or minimized through deterrences and patient education. The Body Mass Index (BMI) is the accepted measurement to determine at what state the body is currently in. Chapman, (2004) explains that a BMI of between 18.5 and 24.9 is a normal weight range and is therefore the desired state however, the trends in this research confirms a steady increase of BMIs over the last 20 years. As a western style nation we have unlimited access to promotion of fast foods and sedientry like activities (internet, video games etc) and in turn have allowed unhealthy food of convience that are econmically and geographically avaliable destroy our health. Television advertisements target young children during children programming hours inluence there decisions and according to Galani (2007) most of the underprivileged suburbs contain the most amount of fast food outlets. So from the research gathered can we establish the obesity impinges on the under privilaged, uneducated and the easily influenced minds of children who in turn influence the main purchasers of groceries. Obesity and other related chronic health condition order to maintain a healthy body weight you must be able to â€Å"balance intake with expenditure† (Frable, Dart, Bradley, 2002) which is were the health promotion strategies take effect by educating about how to conduct this balancing act and why it is important to be within a normal weight range. Primary Health Promotion strategies for obesity Primary health promotion is encouraging behviours that will improve health and over all well being, when relating primary health promotion to obesity we are identifying programs and strategies avaliable to the public in paticular, school aged children. Durand, Logan, Carruth (2007) have labeled childhood obesity â€Å"as a critical public health threat for the 21st century† and so we will examine how some of the programs being run at school will benfit not only the general health of children but also reduce future implications on the nursing practice as these children become adults. The Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden National Programs (Better Health, 2009) is a government funded program for primary school children that teaches them to grow and harvest their own fruit in vegetables in a school garden, how to cook and appreciate fresh and seasonal foods and has the benefits of teaching them lifelong skills, keeps them moving and activate in the garden and linking good food choices to optimal health. School ride-a-thons, and walk to school day are also school promoted activities to encourage movement and exercise while portraying exercise to be fun and social activity. Physical education has become an integral part of primary school life where children are encouraged and given an incentive to participate in team sports and activities with a little healthy competition to help motivate and in some children serve a purpose to an exercise. Programs that are inclusive to all children and are made fun provide the incentive they need to get moving and exercise. By promoting positive healthy eating and exercise will help them the healthy choice the easy choice. Schools are enforcing healthy lunch policy where children are encouraged to bring along healthy foods for lunch and monitored by the teachers. Teachers are encouraging experimenting with foods by awarding points or awards for the healthiest food or most interesting food brought during the week and also undertaking a session on the food pyramid and the 2 and 5, 2 fruit and 5 veg a day theory and to enforce these positive attitudes you only have to look to the likes of Sesame Street where the characters explain what a â€Å"sometimes type of food is† meaning food and treats in moderation and on occasion. Popular fruit commercials with catchy jingles such â€Å"Bananas, make those bodies sing† all equate healthy food choices to being healthy. Commercial campaigns like â€Å"Life be in it† displaying fun activities that children can partake in and new adventures to ha ve all while being active and involved in some sort of physical activity. Opposed to secondary and tertiary health promotion of behaviour modification (Galani, Al, Schneider, Rutten, 2007), these programs influence children and their food and exercises choices to have a positive relationship with food and link good food and physical exercises choices with optimal health. Although these programs are designed for children, the influences of their learnings may well sway their parents and family to also adapt a healthier lifestyle pattern and in turn succeed in promoting health and the healthy choice to their families, friends and well into their communities. These programs run at school are addressing the childhood obesity epidemic by providing education in a fun way about healthy choices and in turn will decrease the amount of children becoming obese adults. Although Kelly Melnyk (2008) research shows that the combination of nutrition, physical activity and education decreases BMI, this theory, however, is partial to the limited research on the affects of these programs and a study should be conducted on how these principals may change or influenced once leaving primary school and progress through the life span as according to Buttriss (2008) â€Å"as yet, no indication of a decline in the rates of obesity in children and adults† although Barl ow et al (2002) argues that these health promotion preventions may lead to favourable long term outcomes. Regardless of the limitations discussed these positive approaches to healthy eating and embracing an active lifestyle will set them ultimately as an adult with good lifestyle choices and therefore reduce the risk of obesity in adulthood. Secondary Health Promotion Strategies for Obesity Interventions and screening for obesity are necessary in order to battle this increasing epidemic plaguing the general population. As with the education and programs being run at school with the primary strategies of health promotion, schools are now undertaking responsibility of some possible interventions and screening. As Physical Education has become an integral part of the schools curriculum, the subject measures the BMI students in conjunction with fitness tests and provides information, strategies and resources to those most vulnerable to obesity and how as a family they can combat the prevalence of obesity. As its teachers who are involved with students for most part of the day, they are able to accurately assess using observation of a pupils motivation and participation in activities and according to Larson, Mandleco, Williams, Tiedman (2006) â€Å"a happy child if often a healthy one.† Australian Goverment Department of Health and Ageing (2009) has introduced a health check program called â€Å"Get set 4 life†. It is avaliabe to all Australian residents aged 4 years and serves the purpose to detetrmine if these children are fit, healthy and ready to learn as the enter their first year of primary school. Carried out by a GP or a nurse registered with the program and involves a history collection and assessment and in return provided with interventions and health advice. Using age appropriate tools and resources, this program teachers parents how to teach there children from an early age about better health while making it fun. The benefits of the program is that it is covered by medicare and so can they be bulk-billed and that they can recieve this check with their 4 year old vaccination. These health checks are used as an early detection device to examine those most at risk of childhood obesity and the research conducted by Durand et al (2007) illustartes th at only 1 in 5 mothers were able to correctly identify that they child was in fact overweight which was prevalent in low education knowledge and a high risk of obseity themselves on the mother behalf and â€Å"may be the barrier to prevention of childhood obesity.† This is imperative as Larson et al(2006) research identifeys a link between paternal obesity and the risk of children developing obesity .These health checks provide a professional health care point of view and dilvierd with the best possible intentions and most up-to date resources. Some of the limitations of this program is that it is only avaliable for 3 to 5 year olds and only one health check can be made. With no review or follow up of how effective these interventions and strategies actually are, we are implementing a program that the research in unable to justify. Moving away from just child secondary health promotions we can also explore the Australian Better Health Intiative Campigan, (2009) called â€Å"Measure up† targeting 25-60 particularly families and older Australians most likely to already be suffering from one chronic health condition possibly exacibated by high BMI. This campigan however does not differ from other screening and prevention tools as the goals are still to make healthy lifestyle choices and associate good life style choices with optimal health. This campaign sends measureing tapes out to the population to measure their waist and given an indication of what sort of risk they may be in developing chronic health conditions related to expanding waist lines. This campigan offers the population the chance to investigate for themselves options in reducing their risk of chronic health conditions and to seek further advice from health care professionals with any concerns or further testing while encouraging an invested intrest in their own health as well as that of their families. Tertiary Health Promotion for Obesity Tertiary health promotion in obesity is often when obesity has been identified and management of the condtion which includes â€Å"a wide variety of treatments for obesity are avaliable including diet, physical exercise, behavioural modifications, pharmacological treatmet and surgery† (Galani, Al, Schneider, Rutten, 2007). In order to undertake these treament , assessing and â€Å"identifying at risk families as early as possible† (Buttriss, 2008) is benficial to ensure exstreme measures of treatment are not offered when aquate patient education will suffice. Of course the best way to intervene is to modify behaviours and lifestyle choices to encourage opitmal health. If these means are in no way effective, then surgical options â€Å"should be offered to patients who are morbidly obese, well informed, motivated and willing to accept the operative risks† (May Buckman, 2009)

Emergence of the Computer and Art :: Technology Technological Essays

Emergence of the Computer and Art Some of the leading and by far most prolific participants involved in the production of art today have no limbs and no eyes. In fact, these participants lack blood, flesh, and other things which are necessary to the determination of a being as human; this is due to the fact that in these participants are neither humans nor beings, they are machines. One might ask how a machine could affect the artworld as a participant in the production or art, how such a machine could participate in the creation of art at all, and why no such machines existed in the past. On the first question, the answer lies in the second; if a machine is able to become a participant in the production of art then it is a natural state that the participant should have some influence upon the artworld via their product. A machine can be a participant in the production of art in the same numerous ways that a human can, for machines are entirely capable of mimicking many of the movements of man. A few machines have been participants in the production of art in the past, however a distinction must be drawn between participants and tools. Tools are used by humans to manipulate things in the world; participants may also be tools in this case, however they do enough without the direction of humans that it can be said that the machine is more like a servant or a slave than a tool. Tools need to be micromanaged by those that drive them, while participants need merely to be directed and will in time produce a product or a stage of a final product. Since the emergence of computing and other modern technologies there has been an increase in the number of tools which no longer need micromanagement and thus fit more closely the category of participant. In this paper will be discussed the blurring of lines between tool and participant by photo editing software and software that is capable of generating art. Blurring the Lines Between Tool and Participant : Photo Editing Software Supplementary Internet Source: users.drew.edu/clotito/001/photo editing 1.htm Examples of technology that enhances art can be seen in the evolution of photo editing software. With photo editing software, one can take a photo or any other digitized picture and change its qualities.

psychology Essay -- essays research papers

Chapter 2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This article is from the April 2003 issue of Psychology Today. In chapter 2, behavior is the main topic. Behavior is a bit unexplainable , but it can be put into form of patterns or predictions. Also, behavior is uncontrolled, but can be changed to a small degree with the use of medicine or a good diet. This article â€Å"Fighting Crime One Bite At A Time† tells how a good diet can maybe decrease the number of rule breaking by prisoners in jail. This article relates how changing ones nutrition can change their behavior. This article showed an experiment where 231 inmates were either given vitamin supplements and the others to fake pills to see which group would break the rules more. The vitamin group broke the rules 25% less than the others did. This is pretty interesting how giving criminals the right nutrition requirements may change their behavior. Chapter 3   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chapter 3 is talks about sensation and perception with our eyes. Our eyes effect how we think and perceive things. Our eye turns a wavelength into light in which the path of the light goes through the pupil then iris then to the retina, which contains cones and rods. This article from Lets Live named â€Å"Obesity Increases Cataract Risk† relates how being obese may effect the development of cataracts in your eyes. A cataract is a cloudiness or opacity in the normally transparent crystalline lens of the eye. This cloudiness can cause a decrease in vision an...

Comparing the Hero in Fall of the House of Usher, Rip Van Winkle, and M

The Romantic Hero in Fall of the House of Usher, Rip Van Winkle, and May-Pole of Merry Mount Hero n. a man of distinguished courage or ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities. Though this is the definition of hero according to Random House Webster’s Dictionary, the Romantic interpretation of hero is quite different. A Romantic hero is usually somewhat innocent and carefree, separate from the masses, and is almost always on some type of journey. This hero is idealistic, non-conforming, and rarely lives in the â€Å"here and now,† but, on the contrary, is well rounded, skilled in some fashion, and able to communicate with all walks of life. Romantic heroes are found in the works of Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, and Washington Irving. Edith and Edgar are the hero and heroine of â€Å"The May-Pole of Merry Mount† by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Though the people of Merry Mount are themselves romantic, these two characters typify authentic Romantic qualities. In this short story, May is a time for renewal, merriment, and celebration. This season is full of color, laughter, and animal-like costumes. â€Å"Within the ring of the monsters, appeared the two airiest forms†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (624). Edith and Edgar, the focus of the festivities, are getting married and are adorned with vibrant garments; therefore, are the most beautiful and admired of the Merry Mount group. They are both young and innocent, which is also an attribute of Romantic heroes. While waiting for the ceremony to begin, Edgar glances at Edith and is surprised by her disposition. He questions her â€Å"pensive† look and explains to her â€Å"that nothing of futurity will be brighter than the mere remembrance of what is now passingâ⠂¬ (625). Edith then acknow... ... In conclusion, not all definitions of hero can be found in the dictionary. Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Edgar Allen Poe offer three contrasting portraits of a Romantic hero. Rip, Edith and Edgar, and Roderick may not fill Webster’s shoes of criteria, but their wardrobe is truly Romantic.    Works Cited Hawthorne, Nathaniel. â€Å"The May-Pole of Merry Mount.† The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Bayn. New York: Norton & Company, 1999. 623-630. Irving, Washington. â€Å"Rip Van Winkle.† The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Bayn. New York: Norton & Company, 1999. 429-439. Poe, Edgar Allen. â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher.† The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Bayn. New York: Norton & Company, 1999. 717-730.

Why the Us Does Not Have an Official Language

Kelly Setters September 12, 2012 ENG 122 Teresa Plummer English Composition 2 Why the United States doesn’t have a Designated Language ? Why the United States doesn’t have a Designated Language Why the United States does not have an official language has been an ongoing debate for a long time. A lot of people are for it and a lot of people are against it. While conducting my research I learned that if the United States made English the official language of the country it would be going against the first amendment, Freedom of speech. Regardless of going against the constitution 27 states have made English their official language.Why is it so important to so many people that the United States have an official language? Would it aid immigrants in the assimilation process and make it more likely for them to succeed? Can other languages be used in the country for certain official purposes, if English is the sole official language? Does official English offend the idea of Ame rican diversity? Does it discriminate against non-native speakers? Does an adequate incentive exist to learn English without it being official? Is there anything wrong with the status quo? Do most countries in the world have an official language? Is it important for any tangible and practical reasons?Do English only laws threaten or enhance public safety? Is official English good public policy? (Debate 2010) These are questions that rise in everyone’s mind when the topic of designating an official language in the US comes up. The 27 states of the United States of America that have an official langiage are, â€Å"Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, North Carolina, North Dakota, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Wyoming. (Us constitution net 1995-2010) Many people think it’s unconstitutional f or the United States to have an official language because it’s America. America is where freedom rings. References No Author Cited Does the United States need an official language Retrieved from: http://maxweber. hunter. cuny. edu/pub/eres/GSR716A_KUECHLER/monique. htm No Author cited (2010) Debate: English as US official language Retrieved from: http://debatepedia. idebate. org/en/index. php/Debate:_English_as_US_official_language Walenta, C. (1995-2010) Constitutional Topic: Official Language Retrieved from: http://www. usconstitution. net/consttop_lang. html

Hume’s Argument for Skepticism

Eryn Croft Professor Chudnoff PHI 101 Honors October 9, 2012 Hume’s argument for skepticism about induction states that we can use induction, like causation, to gain knowledge. We must rely on induction to draw conclusions in everyday life because it is the only resource we have to work with. However, we must realize the limitations of induction. Philosopher Karl Popper successfully undermines Hume’s problem of induction by proving that induction is not needed in science and that Hume’s argument is circular. Karl Popper argued that induction cannot be used in science.He says that induction can never be proven by experimentation. Science instead uses deduction by formulating theories and hypotheses. Science uses the method of conjecture and refutation. Hypotheses can never be proven or verified, but their success can be compared to other hypotheses. The usefulness of a hypothesis can be determined through deduction or predictions. Scientists test theories by makin g completely falsifiable claims. If there is nothing you can to do disprove the claim then the hypothesis is corroborated. A corroborated theory should not be considered true, merely accepted until better theories are discovered.Popper said that a theory can never be confirmed by observation. Where Hume argues that our theory originates from repetition, Popper argues that theory begins before repetition. Therefore, Popper argued that science does not even use induction. Karl Popper also argued that inductive reasoning leads to more inductive reasoning, leading to a circular argument. The problem of induction is that induction is creating the problem and â€Å"begging the question. † In order to avoid begging the question when using inductive reasoning, you might introduce a new inductive principle.By introducing a new inductive principle, you would have to make justification based on experience, leading to even more inductive reasoning. Hume argues that we need to justify ind uction, but Popper says it is not necessary because it leads to more induction and hence a circular argument. Popper also completely denies that induction is an a priori synthetic truth. An a priori truth is necessary and truth preserving, meaning it cannot be false. If induction is a priori, then it would not require justification based upon experience because it is already true.Since Popper rejects the traditional inductive model in science, he had to replace it with his own approach. Popper chose to accept William Whewell’s ‘hypothetico-deductive model. ’ He said that science does not use the inductive model, but instead uses the hypothetico-deductive model. The model begins by formulating a hypothesis that can be falsified by a test on observable data. We can then experiment or make observations to falsify the theory. Now the theory can be falsified or corroborated. If it is corroborated, then it will be accepted and used repeatedly until a better theory prov es better.In Hume’s view, observation comes before theory, whereas Popper’s view is that theory comes before observation. Popper believes that having an observation without first considering a theory is pointless. He argued that theories are only scientific if they are capable of being refuted by tests. As a result, Popper thought that falsifiability and testability were synonymous. One of Popper’s biggest arguments against Hume’s theory of induction is in his explanation of corroboration. A theory can only be corroborated if it does not contradict the basic, accepted statements.Even if a theory is falsified, we can still find many areas of corroboration. If a theory is highly falsified, then it is also highly corroborated. Needless to say, a falsified theory cannot also be considered corroborated. Merely, we can find corroboration through the steps taken to falsify a theory. Popper also acknowledges that corroboration is relative to time. He wanted to en sure that corroboration was not used to determine truth or falsehood. Although Popper successfully undermines Hume’s argument for skepticism of induction, there are also problems with Popper’s argument.Scientists always repeat experiments in order to ensure that the results are accurate and valid. An experiment cannot be proven correct unless other scientists replicate the experiment and achieve the same results. However, Popper argues that scientific knowledge is created by conjecture and criticism; but repeating experiments is not conjecture or criticism, it is induction. You would not repeat experiments for conjecture because it would be repetitive and unnecessary. Repeating experiments is in fact induction because it is allowing for the possibility that the conclusion is false.For example, if all of the Ibis we have ever observed are white, we can induce that all Ibis are white. This observation about Ibis is not conjecture because our past experiences offer suffic ient proof that all Ibis are white. Induction is based off of past experiences and repetitive observations. Therefore, scientists’ repeating an experiment is in fact induction, not conjecture or criticism. Scientific knowledge is an infinite cycle of inductive logic. Inductive logic continuously replaces one theory, with a better more inclusive theory that also relies on inductive logic. In addition, science does have theories that they think are proven.When scientists create a law, it is based on a theory proven through induction. For example, Isaac Newton was sitting under an apple tree when an apple suddenly fell next to him on the ground. Newton used his observation to conclude that gravity was the force that caused the apple to fall to the ground instead of merely floating in the air. Newton, by direct observation and repetition, proved the Universal Law of Gravitation. Popper argued that theories proven corroborated should not be considered true. But gravity can in fact only be proven true through induction, not conjecture.Newton did not attempt to continuously falsify gravity, but instead continuously prove gravity through causal relations. If the apple always falls to the ground and always has in the past, then we can use inductive reasoning to assume that gravity is the cause of the fall. Finally, scientists must use prediction as part of methodology in science. Popper says that theory comes before observation. Prediction is the majority of proposing a theory. We cannot use Popper’s ‘hyptothetico-deductive model’ without the methods of induction because probability is part of induction. Induction allows us to predict the outcome, and thus create a theory.Induction is included in Popper’s own models, which negates his claim that science does not use induction. Hume’s argument for skepticism about induction has many valuable points that allow us to conclude that induction can be a valuable tool in drawing conclus ions; we just have to be skeptical when using induction so we are not misled. Karl Popper successfully undermines Hume’s argument, but there can also be objections to Popper’s argument. As a result, it is best to combine Hume’s argument with Popper’s argument. First, we can accept Popper’s claim that deductive arguments are usually always rationally and logically true.For example, the word bachelor will always be accepted as someone who is unmarried. We can also realize that when using induction, there is always a gap between the premises and the conclusion. We must use probability and past observations to reach a conclusion and close the gap between premises. However, we cannot assume that Popper’s method of falsifying theories and corroborating theories to necessarily be correct. Hume believes that observation comes before theory, while Popper believes that theory comes before observation and is then proven false.Attempting to falsify stat ements is actually using inductive reasoning, so Popper is not absolutely rejecting induction. As a result, we cannot absolutely reject induction either. We must also accept that induction is definitely a priori, definitely truth preserving. It is a known fact. However, an a priori truth is based on probability and enquiring. For example, we cannot say bachelors are not married without enquiring about people we know to be bachelors. Thus, we still use induction and cannot rule it out in the scientific process. As a result, we can argue that science uses both inductive and deductive methods to reach conclusions.

Interviewed Couple Essay

The family is regarded as the basic unit of society and as such, good parenting is important in order to strengthen the family as an institution. Nevertheless, the situation of every family is different. There are important factors such as age, cultural, background, financial stability, etc. that must be carefully considered in assessing the parenting style in every family. Being the case, it is necessary that the situation of families are given due importance and the most effective way to be able to understand parenting styles is through the face-to-face interaction with parents. In relation to this, Henry and Tanya Pietrkowski were interviewed when it comes to parenting their daughter, Sophia. The interviewees are Henry and Tanya Pietrkowski who are the parents of a 14 years old teenager. The first part of the interview is about the family background of the couple that involves their respective ethnicity and religion. Tanya has a German-Jewish and Russian Jewish ethnicity. She pointed out that there was a conflict between the German and Russian sides of her family. She grew up in a small town Georgia wherein Jews are regarded as a minority. On the other hand, Henry came from a family of first-generation American Jewish. His parents emigrated from Poland and were Holocaust survivors. Henry grew up in the north side of Chicago. In this part of the interview, the ethnicity and religious background of the couple is given importance because the place and way by which they grew up have a substantial effect in their corresponding beliefs and values about parenting (McDermott 4). In addition, through the conversation of the interviewer with the couple it was established that their ancestors were immigrants from other countries and regarded as a minority in the American society. Tanya even explicitly stated that she experienced living in a small town in Georgia wherein Jews are a minority. In terms of parenting, the cultural background of the parents is important, especially when it comes to dealing with teachers that will be responsible in educating their children. The parents and the teachers should be able to understand each other in terms of cultural context in order for them to properly guide the education and behavior of the child (McDermott 4). The interview with the couple also gives emphasis with the respective lessons that they learn from their parents regarding parenting. The couple explained that their parents veered away from the parenting styles of their grandparents because the latter experienced a very difficult childhood, which is why in the case of Tanya, her parents chose to live in Georgia so that she will not experience the difficulties that they went through. Both the parents of the couple are disciplinarians. Nevertheless, they were still able to maximize their skills and talents even though their parents are not financial stable. Tanya’s father was an art professor, which make it easier for her to develop her singing, running, debating, and other skills because her father provided her with private lessons with his colleagues in the academe. Tanya’s father exemplified the ability of parents to give the necessary their children by means of supporting their interests, which eventually served as a huge help in maximizing their potentials as individuals (Heath 316). Unfortunately, Tanya admitted that her parents were not able to address the issues that they have during their childhood, which makes it difficult for them to instill the necessary values to her and her brother. Furthermore, Tanya and her mother also have disagreements on the way Tanya raised her daughter, especially when it comes to financial matters and the values that she teach her daughter. The problem of Tanya’s parents in teaching values to their children is brought about by unresolved childhood issues, which is discussed by Erik Erikson in the stages of development. Tanya’s parents were not able to properly go through the different stages of development, which is why their unresolved childhood issues still affects their parenting style (Elkind 9). Moreover, the disagreement between Tanya and her mother is also caused by the failure of the mother to properly develop into an adult that has the necessary financial stability and value fulfillment (Newman and Newman 317). The second part of the interview involves the conversation about the marriage of the couple and their decision to conceive a child. Based on the answer of the couple, they were only 13 months married when Tanya became pregnant. The couple already acknowledges the idea that they will become parents but they did not expect that it will happen very soon. However, even though the child came very early in their marriage the couple was able to fulfill their respective dreams of being married first and having a stable job before having a baby. In this situation, the couple was individually fulfilled before having a baby, which is essential in their growth process as adults and eventually has a good effect in their parenting (Simon and Lambert 91). The last part of the interview is about the parenting of the couple. It is clearly observable that the couple also wants the best for their daughter, in terms of her living a better life as compared to them. The couple has their own parenting style that is different from their parents because their experienced taught them their parents lack the necessary tending in the way they were raised (Taylor 34). Moreover, the couple also moved to a part of Chicago that has Jewish community in order for their daughter not to feel isolated. They also enrolled their daughter to a Jewish school in order for her to have a strong Jewish faith unlike them. The couple admitted that they do not have any specific parenting style for their daughter wherein they did not establish any parenting roles of rules that their daughter need to follow. The couple just goes with the flow of parenting but they believed that they were able to raise their children well because they listen to her, which is important in parenting. The couple advised other parents that the right way of parenting is by trusting one’s instinct, which is actually true in the most current studies that there is â€Å"no single recipe for successful parenting† because every family have different issues, backgrounds, beliefs, and values that must be considered in identifying the right parenting style (Maccoby 451).

Newt Experiences at the Chetco River

Newt experiences at the Chetco river There are many things that might come to mind when a person thinks about camping along the Chetco River. Things like swimming , roating marshmallows over a crackling fire while warming up from the cool summer breeze, or even just the smell of the good ole outdoors. For me, however, the Chetco River brings yet another thing to mind :poison. It all started on a warm summer evening in June of 2001. My family and I, as we always did this time of year,had been camping for 2 or 3 days. My brother,Ethan and I had found our usual perch im the shallow parts of the river catching frogs and Red- bellied newts.Suddenly, a billowing voice came floating through the evergreens and out to the river where Ethan and I stood. It was our mom. â€Å" Come and wash up and eat,† she shouted. So Ethan and I obediently ran up to our campsite. Now, our mom always warned us to wash our hands after playing in the river because we could get sick, and we most always obe yed in fear of getting some terrible disease or worse. This particular occasion however, Ethan went through the typical routine of pouring some water from a gallon jug on his hands,rubbing it all together with soap and rinsing.I however, thought in my little uneducated seven year old mind, that I was somehow above all of that nonsense about death and poison. So while my brother was actually washing his hands and scrubbing off the poisonous slime left behind by the newts, I chose to just pretend that I ws washing my hands so that I could eat quicker. So I , with my slime covered hands, happily scarfed down my hotdog. â€Å" See nothing happened, those newts can't be poisonous. † I thought trying to convince myself that my mom was just over reacting.I went about my usual day running around the campsite, most likely driving any by-standers including my family insane. After about an hour of this ,I felt a sharp, intense pain in my side. I keeled over, gripping my gut. My mom, not icing that something wasn't right, ran over to me. â€Å"what's wrong? † â€Å" I don't feel good,† I Explained. So she sent me to the tent to rest, assuming that I had just run around too much after eating. After an few hours of restlessly lying there, I didn't feel any better. My stomach still felt like the Roman Coliseum on fight day. I couldn't move.I tried to call out to my mom, but where the words should have been, there was just a moan of sheer agony. After a few minutes, I heard footsteps. Finally she was answering my silent plea. She walked into the tent only to find me a motionless sweaty mess. â€Å" I won't be mad,† she started â€Å" but are you absolutely positive that you washed your hands really well before dinner? † Tears filled my eyes â€Å" I'm sorry! † I gasped â€Å" I lied. † â€Å" OK† was her only answer. With that , she sprung up and out of the tent. A few seconds later,i heard her voice talking to an inaudib le listener. well she was out playing with newts and didn't wash her hands before she ate and now she's really sick. † Her voice trembled a bit. As my mom continued to explain my predicament over the phone, I got more frightened by the minute. A few minutes later, the sound of wheels and sirens came. They stopped when it sounded like they were in our campsite. Within seconds, two men who I had never seen before came rushing into the tent toward me with two big bags and what looked to me like an alien mask. One man situated himself right behind me and laid my head on his lap.The other went around to my side and told me that they were going to take good care of me. All I had to do was puke. In a flash a third worker, this one female,came in with a long cot. The three of them hoisted me up onto the stretcher and into the ambulance. After what seemed like a lifetime,we got to the Brookings Hospital. They took me into a little white room with all white walls and teddy bear wallpape r. I wasn't sure exactly where I was, but I was too exhausted to think about it. A doctor came in. â€Å" What happened here? †he asked with a smile his face wrinkled with years of wisdom. we're gonna fix you all up OK? We'll just make sure you're OK, and you'll be better in no time. † After some time had passed, I was released from the hospital with little more than exhaustion and a stern warning to wash my hands before eating. We headed back to the campsite and continued our stay until the end of the week. The next day, I was fully recovered from my fiasco and Ethan and I went back to our everyday routine of catching newts and frogs, But this time, when mom called us for dinner, I was extra sure that my hands were clean. I never want to go through that again.